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et fuel, Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF), or Avtur is a type of fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is clear to straw-coloured in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1 which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance.
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Aviation Fuel or Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1) has a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 carbon numbers (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel (including Jet B), between about 5 and 15 carbon numbers.
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Aviation fuel or Jet Fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft; it is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperatures, amongst other properties.
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Civil Jet Fuels
Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering jet and turbo-prop engined aircraft and are not to be confused with Avgas. Outside former communist areas, there are currently two main grades of turbine fuel in use in civil commercial aviation : Jet A-1 and Jet A, both are kerosene type fuels. There is another grade of jet fuel, Jet B which is a wide cut kerosene (a blend of gasoline and kerosene) but it is rarely used except in very cold climates.
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Jet A-1 is a kerosene grade of fuel suitable for most turbine engined aircraft. It is produced to a stringent internationally agreed standard, has a flash point above 38°C (100°F) and a freeze point maximum of -47°C. It is widely available outside the U.S.A. Jet A-1 meets the requirements of British specification DEF STAN 91–91 (Jet A-1), (formerly DERD 2494 (AVTUR), ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1) and IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.
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Jet A is a similar kerosene type of fuel, produced to an ASTM specification and normally only available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A-1 but a higher freeze point maximum (-40°C). It is supplied against the ASTM D1655 (Jet A) specification.
Jet B is a distillate covering the naphtha and kerosene fractions. It can be used as an alternative to Jet A-1 but because it is more difficult to handle (higher flammability), there is only significant demand in very cold climates where its better cold weather performance is important. In Canada it is supplied against the Canadian Specification CAN/CGSB 3.23.
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Military Jet Fuels
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Jet-4 is the military equivalent of Jet B with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-PRF-5624S Grade JP-4. JP-4 also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91–88 AVTAG/FSII (formerly DERD 2454),where FSII stands for Fuel Systems Icing Inhibitor. NATO Code F-40.
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Jet-5 is a high flash point kerosene meeting the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-PRF-5624S Grade JP-5. JP-5 also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91–86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452). NATO Code F-44.
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Jet-8 is the military equivalent of Jet A-1 with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-T-83188D. JP-8 also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91–87 AVTUR/FSII (formerly DERD 2453). NATO Code F-34.
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JP-9 is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the Tomahawk containing the TH-dimer TetraHydroDiMethylCycloPentadiene produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer.
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JP-10 is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the ALCM. It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, and adamantane. It is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of −65 °F (−54 °C).
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JP54 is an abbreviation for “Jet Propulsion, A1, Colonial Grade 54″ During the refining process only 15% of the crude oil is made up of JP54 the rest of the grade is used for different types of plastic.
D6 Diesel is also known as Residual Fuel Oil / Bunker Fuel Oil , Bunker Oil and is of high-viscosity. This particular fuel oil requires preheating to 220 – 260 Degrees Fahrenheit. D6 is mostly used for generators.
D6 is a type of residual fuel, mainly used in power plants and larger ships. The fuel requires to be preheated before it can be used. It is not possible to use it in smaller engines or vessels/vehicles where it is not possible to pre-heat it. D6 is its name in the USA. In other parts of the world it has other names.
Residual means the material remaining after the more valuable cuts of crude oil have boiled off. The residue may contain various undesirable impurities including 2 percent water and one-half percent mineral soil. D6 fuel is also known as residual fuel oil (RFO), by the Navy specification of Bunker C, or by the Pacific Specification of PS-400.
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Recent changes in fuel quality regulation now require further refining of the D6 in order to remove the sulphur, which leads to a higher cost. Despite this recent change, D6 is still less useful because of its viscosity as well as that it needs to be pre-heated before it can be used and contains high amounts of pollutants, such as sulphur. Since it requires pre-heating, it cannot be used in small ships or boats or cars. However large ships and power plants can use the residual fuel oil.
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The price of D6 diesel traditionally rises during colder months as demand for heating oil rises, which is refined in much the same way. In many parts of the United States and throughout the United Kingdom and Australia, D6 diesel may be priced higher than petrol.
D2 is a refinery abbreviation for Gasoil. It is the second distillate from the crude oil, and can be used without reformers and additives. So, the first engines used D2 as fuel — before petrol cars as we know them today was invented. That is because the engine invented by a German called Diesel, requires no spark plugs. The diesel engine will ignite and combust when the pressure increases so that the heated “plug” makes it explode. Here we get the name “Diesel” — since the same principles are used in diesel engines today. However, automotive diesel that you fill has additives that the refinery will add to make the engine more efficient and also easier to start in the winter. Diesel changes “flash point” in the winter. It also has additives to absorb water that condense. If you use summer diesel in the winter, you will get better mileage, but your fuel pipes may freeze and can also burst, and the wax makes the diesel flow thicker.
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The principal difference between GASOIL and D2 is the content of sulphur. Just 10 years ago, the US EPA introduced a limit of 4% sulphur in the GASOIL, whereas Europe and the rest of the world followed later. As in most other cases, when you first have to remove the sulphur, it was soon discovered ways of doing this more efficient. Then it was discovered that the sulphur, as sulphuric acid, could be traded with a good profit — which now is the motivator for extracting as much as possible.
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So “Low sulphur Gasoil” is no longer 4 percent — but below 0.2 percent. Then we have a new, “Ultra Low Sulphur” at 0.02% at the most, and the limit here is (a) that mass spectographs requires extensive calibration to measure below 1000ppm, and (b) sulphur has a way to form clogs — the molecules binds to free hydrogen molecules and form a cluster of molecules that will break if “cracked” by the refinery, but as explained above, D2 is a distillate and has not been “cracked”.
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ISO has a standard for D2 that most of oil companies use as their reference.
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In the U.S. it is ANSI that has defined the US national standard for D2, according to proposals from the ASTM, API and EPA.
In Europe there are similar national variants, e.g. in Germany set by DIN, and in Russia by GOST.
The GOST variant for D2/Gasoil is GOST 305–82 and specifies now a sulphur content of 0.02 MAX which is according to the ISO standard. However, the ANSI standard will call this “Ultra Low Sulphur”, and retain 0.2% (2000ppm) as the “Low sulphur”. The reduction of sulphur in the Gasoil used for heating has contributed to less pollution in many cities.
EN590
EN590 describes the physical properties that all automotive diesel fuel must meet if it is to be sold in the European Union, Croatia, Iceland, Norway and Switzerland.
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The EN 590 had been introduced along with the European emission standards. With each of its revisions the EN 590 had been adapted to lower the sulphur content of diesel fuel - since 2007 this is called ultra low sulphur diesel as the former function of sulphur as a lubricant is absent (and needs to be replaced by additives).
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The quality of European diesel fuels is specified by the EN 590 standard. While these specifications not are mandatory, they are observed by all fuel suppliers in Europe.
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Automotive diesel EN 590 is intended for application in diesel engines. Diesel motor fuel quality meets the requirements of European Standard EN 590. For operation in the conditions of a temperate climate following marks of fuel diesel automotive EN 590 are offered: Grade C - limiting filterability temperature -5 ° C; Grade D - limiting filterability temperature -10 ° C; Grade E - limiting filterability temperature - 15 ° C; Grade F - limiting filterability temperature -20 ° C. The entire volume of produced diesel fuel quality meets the requirements for fuels for vehicles of Euro 4 and Euro 5. Low sulphur content in diesel EN 590 reduces emissions of sulphur oxides into the atmosphere, which is especially important for for inhabitants of big cities.
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Ultra-low-sulphur diesel (ULSD)
Ultra-low-sulphur diesel (ULSD) is diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulphur content. As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. There is not a single standard set of specifications and as the government mandated standard becomes progressively more strict so does the definition.
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The move to lower sulphur content is expected to allow the application of newer emissions control technologies that should substantially lower emissions of particulate matter from diesel engines. This change occurred first in the European Union and is now happening in North America. New emissions standards, dependent on the cleaner fuel, have been in effect for auto mobiles in the United States since model year 2007.
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ULSD has a lower energy content due to the heavy processing required to remove large amounts of sulphur from oil, leading to lower fuel economy. Using it requires more costly oil.
Mazut is a heavy, low quality fuel oil, used in generating plants and similar applications. In the United States and Western Europe, Mazut is blended or broken down, with the end product being diesel.
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Mazut may be used for heating houses in the former USSR and in countries of the Far East that do not have the facilities to blend or break it down into more conventional petrochemicals. In the West, furnaces that burn Mazut are commonly called "waste oil" heaters or "waste oil" furnaces.
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Mazut-100 is a fuel oil that is manufactured to GOST specifications, for example GOST 10585-75 (not active), GOST 10585-99 Oil fuel. Mazut is almost exclusively manufactured in the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan. This product is typically used for larger boilers in producing steam since the energy value is high. The most important factor when grading this fuel is the sulphur content, which can mostly be affected by the source feedstock. For shipment purposes, this product is considered a ”dirty oil” product, and because viscosity drastically affect whether it is able to be pumped, shipping has unique requirements. Mazut is much like Number 6 Oil (Bunker C), and is part of the products left over after gasoline and lighter components are evaporated from the crude oil.
Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply propane or butane, are flammable mixtures of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.
It is widely used alternative fuel. It has substantial reserves due to its dual origins from natural gas processing and crude oil refining. Liquefied Petrol Gas (LPG) powered passenger cars have about 10% lower tailpipe CO2 emission than comparable gasoline powered cars. When compared to a diesel car, there is no significant CO2 emission reduction per km driven; however, LPG powered vehicles do have substantially lower NOx emissions than diesel powered vehicles.
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Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that has been cooled to a liquid state, at about -260°Fahrenheit, for shipping and storage. The volume of natural gas in its liquid state is about 600 times smaller than its volume in its gaseous state. This process, which was developed in the 19th century, makes it possible to transport natural gas to places pipelines do not reach and to use natural gas as a transportation fuel.
For large-volume ocean transport, LNG is loaded onto double-hulled ships, which are used for both safety and insulating purposes. Once the ship arrives at the receiving port, LNG is off-loaded into well-insulated storage tanks, and later regasified for entrance into a pipeline distribution network.
LNG can also be shipped in smaller quantities, usually over shorter ocean distances. There is a growing trade in small-scale LNG shipments, which are most commonly made using the same containers used on trucks and in international trade, specially outfitted with cryogenic tanks. Other small-scale LNG activities include “peak-shaver” liquefaction and storage facilities, which can hold gas compactly for when it is needed in local markets in the U.S. during times of peak demand. LNG is also sometimes imported or exported by truck from this kind of facility.
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